What happened during the Bourbon French Restoration?

A detailed discussion about what happened during the Bourbon French Restoration, a period of significant political, social, and cultural shifts in France.

The Bourbon French Restoration: A Comprehensive Overview

The Bourbon Restoration (1814–1830) marked a turbulent era in French history, encompassing two distinct phases: the first from 1814 to 1815, briefly interrupted by Napoleon’s return during the Hundred Days, and the second from 1815 to 1830. This period saw the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy, embodied by Louis XVIII and Charles X, following the fall of Napoleon Bonaparte. The restoration was not merely a reinstatement of the old regime but a complex interplay of compromise, reaction, and reform, as the monarchy sought to reconcile the legacy of the French Revolution and Napoleonic Era with its own monarchical traditions.

Context and Background

The French Revolution (1789–1799) had profoundly transformed France, dismantling the feudal system, ending absolute monarchy, and promoting ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity. These changes culminated in the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, whose reign (1799–1814) spread revolutionary principles across Europe but also centralized power under his authoritarian rule.

By 1814, Napoleon’s military setbacks and political isolation prompted his abdication. The Allied powers, led by Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, supported the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty as a stabilizing force. Louis XVIII, the younger brother of the executed Louis XVI, ascended the throne, initiating the first phase of the Bourbon Restoration.

First Restoration (1814–1815)

The initial restoration aimed to balance revolutionary achievements with monarchical continuity. Louis XVIII issued the Charte Constitutionnelle, a constitutional framework designed to placate both royalists and liberals.

Key Features of the Charter:

1. Constitutional Monarchy: The king retained significant authority but shared power with a bicameral legislature.
   • The Chamber of Peers, appointed by the king represented the aristocracy.
   • The Chamber of Deputies reflected the broader population.
2. Civil Liberties: The charter guaranteed freedoms such as equality before the law, property rights (including those of former revolutionaries), and freedom of religion.
3. Napoleonic Code and Reforms: It preserved many Napoleonic reforms, including the legal code, administrative centralization, and meritocracy in civil service.
4. Symbolism and Moderation: While restoring the Bourbon monarchy, Louis XVIII adopted the revolutionary tricolor alongside the traditional fleur-de-lis to symbolize reconciliation.

Challenges to the First Restoration

Despite these conciliatory measures, the monarchy faced significant opposition:

• Royalists sought to undo revolutionary changes and restore the Ancien Régime fully.
• Bonapartists and Republicans viewed the Bourbons as a foreign imposition.
• Economic Troubles compounded discontent, as post war France faced financial instability, unemployment, and resentment over the terms of the Treaty of Paris (1814), which returned France to its 1792 borders and imposed indemnities.

This precarious situation was disrupted by Napoleon’s escape from Elba in 1815, leading to the Hundred Days, during which he briefly reclaimed power. The Battle of Waterloo, June 1815 ended Napoleon’s comeback, and Louis XVIII returned to the throne under the auspices of the Allied powers.

Second Restoration (1815–1830)

The second restoration was marked by greater polarization, as the monarchy oscillated between moderate reform and conservative reaction.

The White Terror

Upon his return, Louis XVIII faced pressure from ultra-royalists, who sought retribution against those who had supported Napoleon or the Revolution. This period, known as the White Terror, saw:

• The persecution of Bonapartists and Republicans.
• The execution or exile of prominent revolutionaries and military officers.

While Louis XVIII sought to temper these excesses, the ultras gained influence, leading to heightened tensions between conservatives and liberals.

Louis XVIII’s Rule (1815–1824)

Louis XVIII’s reign was characterized by efforts to maintain a middle ground. Key aspects of his rule included:

1. Moderation and Pragmatism: Louis XVIII attempted to uphold the Charte Constitutionnelle and avoid alienating moderate liberals.
2. Economic Recovery: Efforts were made to stabilize the economy, rebuild infrastructure, and reduce debt.
3. Foreign Policy: France gradually regained its position in Europe, culminating in the Congress of Aix la Chapelle (1818), which ended the Allied occupation.

However, political divisions persisted. The rise of the ultras, led by Charles X, the king’s younger brother and future successor, signaled a shift toward conservatism.

Charles X’s Rule (1824–1830)

The accession of Charles X marked the monarchy’s turn toward reactionary policies. A staunch royalist and devout Catholic, Charles sought to restore pre revolutionary traditions.

Key Policies and Events:

1. Religious Conservatism: Charles promoted the Catholic Church, reintroduced clerical privileges, and compensated émigrés who had lost land during the Revolution.
2. Economic Policies: Taxation and spending decisions alienated both rural peasants and urban workers.
3. Political Repression: Press censorship and the dissolution of liberal assemblies undermined constitutional governance.

The most controversial measure was the July Ordinances (1830), which:

• Restricted press freedoms.
• Dissolved the newly elected Chamber of Deputies.
• Limited suffrage to the wealthiest property owners.

These ordinances sparked widespread unrest, culminating in the July Revolution (1830).

The July Revolution and the End of the Bourbon Restoration

The July Revolution (July 27–29, 1830), also known as the Three Glorious Days, was a popular uprising against Charles X’s authoritarian measures. Protesters, including workers, students, and bourgeois liberals, erected barricades in Paris, demanding political reform.

Faced with insurmountable opposition, Charles X abdicated and fled to England. The revolution marked the end of the Bourbon Restoration, giving way to the July Monarchy under Louis Philippe I, a constitutional monarch from the House of Orléans.

Legacy of the Bourbon Restoration

The Bourbon Restoration was a period of profound tension and transition, reflecting France’s struggle to reconcile its revolutionary heritage with monarchical traditions. Its legacy can be analyzed through several lenses:

Political Impact

• The restoration demonstrated the challenges of constitutional monarchy in a politically fragmented society.
• It laid the groundwork for future debates over the balance between royal authority and popular sovereignty.

Social and Economic Changes

• The preservation of Napoleonic reforms ensured the continued modernization of French society and governance.
• Class tensions persisted, as the urban middle class and working class sought greater political representation.

Cultural Shifts

• The restoration fostered a romantic cultural movement, reflecting nostalgia for the past and disillusionment with the present.
• Writers like Victor Hugo and Chateaubriand grappled with themes of revolution, monarchy, and identity.

Continuity and Change

While the Bourbons attempted to restore pre revolutionary norms, they ultimately failed to suppress the revolutionary ideals of equality, secularism, and popular sovereignty. These principles would continue to shape French politics, culminating in future revolutions and reforms.

The Bourbon French Restoration was a complex and dynamic period that highlighted the challenges of governance in a post revolutionary society. Torn between the demands of reactionaries and progressives, the Bourbons struggled to establish a stable and enduring regime. The restoration’s ultimate failure underscored the resilience of revolutionary ideals and the difficulty of reconciling them with monarchical traditions. Its legacy remains a testament to France’s enduring quest for liberty, equality, and fraternity.